SOME BASIC ESSENTIALS FOR COMPUTERS

              There is no better place to begin, than the beginning

This chapter is designed to accomplish two things:

1. Provide a basic understanding of how to work with a personal computer.

2. Serve .is guidelines for materials to include in personal computer training programs.

The information in this chapter assumes no prior knowledge of or experience with a personal computer. Anyone who has a comfortable working relationship with a personal computer may wish to skim over this section to get ideas of how to structure an introductory training course. For others starting from scratch, however, the chapter will focus on building a working knowledge of:

The keyboard

The operating system

Working with diskettes

Security and backups

GETTING STARTED

As noted earlier, the two most common types of personal computers that will be encountered in most organizations are machines containing two diskette drives, and those with one diskette drive and a hard disk.

Diskette drives refer to the number of slots on the microprocessor for inserting diskettes. Two-drive systems have one slot for the program diskette and one for working on and storing the results (see Figure 30).

Since hard disks offer the storage equivalent of 30 diskettes, they require only one diskette drive for entering information (see Figure 31), although they may be configured with two drives for more sophisticated applications. In either case, the loading process is the same. The diskette drive(s) has an opening through which diskettes are inserted into the computer. Each opening has a device similar to a door that can be opened and closed using what is called a lift load lever. Once a diskette is inserted, the door is closed behind it by pushing the load lever down. While the system reads your program, a small red light on the front of your disk drive will come on. Do not open the drive door while this light is on. Doing so may permanently damage the program, and under some circumstances the system unit itself.

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 31. Proper way of loading a diskette. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

To make things more comfortable, it is possible to make minor adjustments to the height of the keyboard and the brightness and contrast of the display monitor. If the display monitor is near a source of bright light, such as a window, or has a high degree of glare, an anti glare screen might be appropriate.

Depending on the model, most keyboards have two to three possible positions. These range from, flat to a five-degree to 15 degree angle. To adjust the height, pick up the keyboard and, make the  necessary adjustment using the knobs at each end.

Brightness and contrast can be adjusted using the control knobs generally found on the front of the monitor. On systems that share multiple users, this will probably have to be done every time a person sits down to work. Everything a computer does is governed by operating sys tern, which is a software program that manages many of the computer’s basic functions. It acts as an intermediary between hardware and software and performs such tasks as controlling the input output devices, assigning spaces in memory to programs and data, and controlling how the system processes information. -

For IBM and IBM-compatible machines the operating system is called DOS (Disk Operating System), MS-DOS, or PC-DOS. They all perform the same basic functions.

The operating system must be present whenever a system is on in order for anything to be accomplished. In addition, it must be copied to all software before that software can be installed or used. Most software is generic in nature and written to be run on more than one brand of machine. Copying the operating system onto a software program allows it to become compatible with a particular system. Instructions accompany most software programs.

Booting is the process of actually loading DOS into a system. Booting clears the memory, loads the operating system, and gets the computer ready to process its work. If this is done when a machine is first turned on, it is called a cold boot. If the operating system is loaded after a system is already up and running, it is called a warm boot.

To perform a cold boot, simply put a copy of DOS or its equivalent in Drive A, and turn the computer on. The on—off switch that controls the system unit or microprocessor is located at the rear of the unit. On IBM machines, the switch will always be on the right-hand side (see Figure 32).

This is the recommended way to activate an entire system:

First, turn on the printer

Second, turn on the monitor

Third, turn on the CPU

Follow this sequence because one of the first things a system unit does is to check what is connected to it, and whether or not they are working properly. Turning the system on as described

 

 

FIGURE 32. Locations of on/off switch on IBM system unit. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

is the most effective way to accomplish this. If a unit is connected to multisocket electrical power strip or surge suppressors check to see that it is turned on as well. Many people control the power to all their system components through such devices, using them to turn everything on simultaneously.

When the power is switched on, the first sound heard will be the motor humming as the computer checks to see how much memory it has  take from 3 to 90 seconds, depending on how much memory has been installed. Memory will be counted in units   which can be seen blinking by at the top left—hand corner of a monitor.

When the memory check is completed, the computer will emit a short beep, and then display the following message:

Current date is 01-01-1980

Enter new date:

At this point, a person may simply hit the “enter” key, or may provide the current date. If he or she is working with file materials, or materials that may require future reference, a date should be entered. To enter a date, the computer must be given the month, 1-12, day, 1-31, and year, 80-99. A correct entry might be: 10-14-1986.

The operating system will then ask for the time. Again, the choice is to simply hit “enter,” or supply the current time. Since a 24-hour clock is used, any time past noon should carry one of the following values:

1:00 = 1300 hr

2:00 = 1400 hr

7:00 = 1900 hr

8:00 = 2000 hr

3:00 = 1500 hr 9:00 = 2100 hr

4:00 1600 hr

5:00 1700 hr

6:00 = 1800 hr

10:00 = 2200 hr

11:00 = 2300 hr

12:00 = 2400 hr

The time is expressed in hours: minutes: seconds: and hundredths. Colons (:) must be used between• hours, minutes, and seconds. Any value that is omitted will be assumed to be a zero. For example, if it is 2:30 in the afternoon, you would enter 14:30 hrs. And the system would record 14:30:00.

To perform a warm boot, the system must be restarted by using the “Cntrl,”“Alt,” and “Del” keys simultaneously. The operating system disk should be in drive A, unless the system has a hard disk on which it has already been installed. As in a cold boot, the operating system will again ask to have the date and time entered.

 

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CONFIGURING A SYSTEM

The best way to configure, or have a personal computer assembled to meet specific needs, is to single out those jobs that are appropriate for such a machine to perform. After a list of

FIGURE 26. Compaq Portable Personal Computer. Courtesy of Compaq Computer Corporation.

FIGURE 27. Lap-top personal computer. Drawing Courtesy of Data General Corporation.

 These tasks has been established, the next step is to take a look at what software products are available that will best meet those needs. When the most appropriate software has been selected, the personal computer itself can be designed and ordered. Following this approach ensures that enough memory will be installed to run the software, and that the personal computer will be tailored with such things as fixed disks, and given whatever capabilities are needed to perform such tasks as: displaying and printing color charts and graphs, communicating with other computers, having access to over-the-phone services via a modem, and printing letter-quality documents. If machines are dedicated to training programs or departments, they should be configured as closely as possible to those placed elsewhere in the organization. Most systems being installed in organizations contain between 256K and 640K of memory, are equipped to handle color graphics and displays, and have a printer. For training purposes, a dot-matrix is generally all that is necessary. 

 

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Programming Languages

As noted earlier, computers work only with binary information. This machine language is really nothing more than a series of Os and Is strung together. Machine language, however, is a difficult way for most people to communicate with a computer. To simplify things, a number of high-level programming languages were created. These are much simpler to use and understand because of their similarity to the everyday language of human communications. These programming languages are translated into a code the computer understands, using the firmware installed in it by the manufacturer.

Among the most widely used languages are:

FORTRAN: (Formula Translator). It is used primarily in medical, scientific, and technical applications.

COBOL: (Common Business Oriented Language). It is one of the most popular business and accounting languages.

BASIC: (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code). This is as close to English as current programming languages come. BASIC is supplied with many personal computers, by the manufacturers.

PASCAL: (Named for the Seventeenth-Century French Mathematician Blaise Pascal). This is a popular programming language with many microcomputer users, who consider it easy to learn.

No matter which language a program is written in, the languages generally share four fundamental activities. They:

1. Provide a method for getting something into the computer, and getting it out again

2. Make comparisons

3. Decide what activities need to be performed

4. Repeat tasks until a particular job is completed

With the wide variety of software packages on the market that meet the needs of most users, it is probably not as important to learn a programming language as it once was for the average user.

 

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A QUICK REVIEW ON COMPUTERS COMPONENTS

One very simple way of thinking about how computers work is to make a comparison between a personal computer’s components and corresponding human functions:

  PC Components                               Human Functions

)    CPU)                                                       Brain

   Memory                                           Ability to recall things

Software                                                  Intelligence

Input (i.e.: keyboard)                            Five senses

Output (i.e.: printer)                            Speech, writing

Unlike humans, computers need to be told exactly what to do before they will perform any task. Computers also work only with binary (numeric) information. In order to perform, a computer first converts all programs and data into this numeric form that it can understand. Once this is done, it will perform any task assigned it. All of these activities are accomplished by the operating system. Essentially, the operating system is a group of programs that have the responsibility of telling the computer what to do, and the most efficient way of doing it. The operating system for IBM personal computers and IBM compatible systems is the Disk Operating System (DOS), which performs a number of jobs that can be broken down into three main functions:

1. Handles and manages files

2. Oversees the use of operating hardware

3. Interprets and executes commands (see Figure 15)

Memory and storage

While humans think of memory in terms of words or amounts of information that can be remembered, computers think of memory in terms of bits, bytes, K, and megabytes. The smallest unit of memory is the bit. A bit is a binary digit of information. Eight hits equal one byte, which is considered the standard unit for computing information. While the bit is too small a unit of information to spend much time worrying about, a byte can be thought of as one character, such as a letter, number, symbol, or space. For example, the phrase: “Tom, come here” contains 17 characters (4 symbols, 11 letters, and 2 spaces). This means the phrase also has 17 bytes. The symbol K represents 1000 bytes (1024 to be precise). A megabyte (Meg) contains one million bytes. One way to think about this is to compare it to a standard page of typed text that contains around 3000 characters, or 3K of information. Using this analogy, one megabyte would be roughly equal to 333 pages.

FIGURE 15. The disk operating system is an indispensable part of a personal computer, governing everything from file management to the hardware.

Obviously, the more memory capacity a personal computer has, the more it can accomplish. A 5.25-inch double-sided diskette, for example, can provide over 320K of long-term memory (or about 107 pages of standard text). (See Figure 16.) Many personal computers have hard disk memories, designed to hold 10 megabytes (see Figure 17) (about 3333 pages of equivalent text) or more. Diskettes and hard disks (sometimes called Winchester disks) allow for the long-term storage of programs or data. Unlike the

FIGURE 16. A diskette can hold the equivalent of 107 pages of text.

Internal working memory, the information stored in these outside sources isn’t lost when a computer is shut off. Both sources also offer mass storage capabilities that the computer’s internal memory isn’t large enough to deal with. Other types of storage devices include cassette tapes (which are rarely found in business systems), cartridge tape systems, which can be plugged directly into the personal computer or be kept as a separate piece of equipment, external hard disks (sometimes called expansion units) connected to the system but physicality separate from it, mass storage devices designed to support several systems, and hard disks that can be plugged directly into .1 personal computer (Figure 18) and then removed to be stored elsewhere.

 

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HOW A COMPUTER OPERATES

What goes on inside a computer is a mystery to most people, and even a little frightening to some. Actually, it is a fairly simple process - Whether we are talking about a supercomputer or one that can sit on top of a desk, all function in the same general way.

To understand how computers operate, we first have to break them down into several basic elements:

1. Input

2. Central processing unit (CPU)

3. Memory or storage

4. Output

Information is put into the computer through any of several different sources:

1. Keyboard

2. Data diskette (which can contain the program of instructions

What Are The Components Of A Personal Computer

The hardware components (those things you can see and touch), for a personal computer include:

A microprocessor (or system unit)—This is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) for a personal computer. While it looks like a box, it contains the memory systems (RAM and ROM) and is really the heart of the system. This unit also contains the disk drives. Since the memory is wiped clean each time you turn the machine off, you need a more permanent storage system. This is provided by keeping separate memory diskettes.

• A keyboard that lets you communicate with the system.

• A video display monitor (like a TV screen) that lets the system communicate with you.

• A printer that can produce a paper copy of whatever you are working on.

Diskettes—The software containing the programs you wish to run or on which to plan your work. A diskette is a small magnetic record that contains the storage space for your memory. When a diskette is inserted into a disk drive, it is spun much like a record on a turntable, and “read” electronically. A single sided diskette can hold the same amount of information as 110 pages of single-spaced text.

You will be working with, or the information you will be working on)

1. Cassette tape

2. Graphic tablets and electronic pens

3. Light pens, which can be used by directly touching the screen of a monitor

One key point to remember is that a computer will do exactly as it is told, and only what it is told. This can lead to what programmers call GIGO or Garbage In, Garbage Out. If the user doesn’t give the computer the correct information to work with, and precise’ instructions on what to do with that information, he or she will get back incorrect or meaningless answers and results.

Data is entered into the CPU. The CPU is where all the logical and control functions of a computer are carried out. The CPU is actually divided into two areas: a control unit, and the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). The control unit spends its time figuring out what the computer is supposed to do next, and the ALU actually does it.

Memory is where information and instructions are stored. How does a computer memorize? A series of on/off switches lead an electrical current to a particular location, or address. Information is moved between the CPU and its memory banks by electronic pathways or conduits, called registers.

 

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WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Thanks to Madison Avenue, Hollywood, and a horde of science fiction writers, some people have come to believe that computers have minds of their own and are capable of thinking for themselves. While there is some interest and developmental research in the field of artificial intelligence (the so-called fifth generation of computers, which would be able to learn from experience and improve their own performance on any given task), computers. We know them today are basically stupid.

This is an important point to remember, particularly when dealing with someone who has a fear of computers. Essentially, a computer can be thought of as a very fast, very large calculator that can manipulate or process a lot of information, under its own control. It will execute any command it is given with precision and speed, but won’t go beyond that point. In short, it will do exactly what it is told, and no more. It has no way of telling 4vliether the information it is working on is good or bad, unless it receives further instructions and is given some basis for comparison. The intelligence and control belong entirely to the person who is working with it. Turn it off and its memory can be wiped clean. It is important to think about computers as one of many tools (such as telephone, calculators, and electric typewriters and pencil sharpeners) that people have at their disposal to help make life a little easier. Like a calculator, a computer can add and subtract quickly and with a high degree of accuracy. When a person uses a calculator, however, a button has to be pushed for each function to be performed. A computer has the capacity to store a series of instructions that, in effect, tell it what buttons to push, and in what order to push them. Most of what computers can do is based on their ability to:

Add two numbers together

Subtract one number from another

Compare numbers or symbols to see if they are the same

The power computers possess comes from their ability to perform multiple functions simultaneously and process tremendous amounts of information in what amounts to the blink of an eye. They are at their best when used for large volume, highly defined tasks.

In order to function effectively; a computer requires:

An input device, so that information can be given to it Information (or data)

A program to tell it what to do, or how to work, with that data An output device so that it can display or print out whatever is requested of it

These computer concepts can be found at work in any number of things with which most of us have daily contact. For example:

Scanners such as that pictured in Figure 11, used in the checkout stands at the supermarket (including some that have voice synthesizers)

FIGURE 11. Computerized scanner at a grocery store. Photo by author.

Cash registers at fast-food and other restaurants that not only keep track of cash and sales but that also tie into inventory control and reordering. Automatic tellers programmed to transfer money from your account on demand, or perform other services (see Figure 12) Household appliances, such as microwave ovens and televisions. Automatic gasoline pumps (pictured in Figure 13), that record a purchase, turn on the pump and keep track of how many total gallons a station is using Automobile systems that calculate miles per gallon, trip times, and distance. Computers are able to do all these things because they make no distinction between numbers and symbols. Rather, they translate everything into electrical impulses, which form patterns that have meaning for the computer. These patterns form the basis of the computer’s numbering system by taking the electrical pulses and converting them to a binary system. Binary consists of exactly two numbers: 1 (a pulse of electricity) and 0 (no pulse). By stringing is and Os together, the computer converts whatever data it is given into terms it can understand. For example, the binary equivalent of the number 10 is 1010. Binary codes are also assigned to the characters on the keyboard, so that letters, symbols, and spaces are treated the same way numbers are. This is accomplished through an international conversion code called the American Standard Code for International Interchange (ASCU). Under this code for example, the letter “B” on a keyboard is given the numeric value 66, which the computer can convert to its binary equivalent of 01000010. When the computer is finished processing the information it is given, it translates everything back into numbers and symbols that we understand. For most of us, there is no reason to ever use binary in communicating with a computer because this is already on the software. The decoding instruction the computer needs to interpret everything is programmed into it by the manufacturer.

FIGURE 12. Computers help make breaking more convenient  through the automated tellers.

FIGURE 13. Computerized gas pumps calculate sales customer’s account. 

 

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Comparison of Computers Then and Now

 

Figure 8. Comparison of computers then and now. Courtesy of International Business Machines

This process has spanned three generations of growth:

The First Generation: The 1950s. Marked by the arrival of the UNI VAC, first-generation machines are identified by their use of electronic tubes. They were generally capable of executing about 1000 instructions per second and could store no more than 20,000 characters of information. It was during this time that Admiral Grace Hopper, a pioneer of the modern computer age, began what is generally considered the first career as a computer programmer. Hopper also pioneered the development of COBOL; perhaps the most common of all computer languages. The Second Generation: 1960 to 1965. First-generation computers were considered obsolete by 1960, as transistors replaced tubes. The second-generation computers were considerably smaller than their predecessors and handled in the range of one million instructions per second. The solid state technology ad these systems increased their storage capabilities and reliability, making them more attractive to business and industry. Computer concepts, such as operating systems, time sharing, and data communications, were -refined and gained a greater use. The Third Generation: 1965 to the Present. Advances in integrated and printed circuits have spawned the current generation of computers, which are smaller, faster, have more storage capacity, and are more affordable than ever before. There are, of course, many different types of computers available for modern use.

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THE HUMAN FACTORS (COMPUTER)

As we saw in the section on fear of computers, technology can have a profound effect on people. Fear, however, is not the only element that should be considered. People can also be affected by:
The physical demands placed on them by the technology.
The way that personal computers can impact job performance.
As more people spend increasing amounts of their day in front of video display terminals (VDT), more concern is being expressed for their physical well-being. This has increased interest in ergonomics, the study of the relationship between the human body and the machines we use.
One reason for the heightened interest is the growing concern over issues of health, comfort, and stress associated with the growing use of personal computers. Studies by several groups have concluded that there are a number of comfort issues related to the use of personal computers and computer terminals. Among the most cited problems is poor lighting and inadequate furniture that was often designed before anyone ever heard of office automation. According to a 1984 study released by the Administrative. Management Society Foundation, the most commonly reported problems associated with VDTs include pain in the shoulders, neck, buck, arms, and hands. Visual problems include burning eyes, headaches, focusing problems, and stress. These are brought about in part by poor lighting, problems of brightness contrast I twin characters and background, and flickering. Stress is also a factor that needs to be considered. Research landings indicate that some users show anxiety, depression, irritability, anger, confusion, and fatigue when working with terminals Jobs content can also play a factor. According to the Administrative Management Society study, clerical users complain more about discomfort than professional users. This seems to be a result of how personal computers fit into various jobs. For professional workers, they are often problem-solving tools, while data entry left to the clerks. In short, professional workers often use computers to perform tasks that result in something they can take pride in. Clerks, on the other hand, end up doing the simple repetitive jobs in which the end results are not as visible or meaningful. These are all issue that need to be conveyed to managers and owners, Training program can certainly help make the various levels of an organization aware  of the complexities of office automation tools, such as the personal computer, an can help educate people on the human needs in working with such a technology.

 

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Fear oF Damaging The Computer

When they first begin working with a personal computer, many people hardly touched the keyboard for fear of doing something that would cause damage to the computer. People who don’t think twice about slamming down a telephone receiver, or driving their car to its very limits, suddenly grow passive when confronted with a keyboard. From secretaries to corporate executives to the folks down on the loading dock, there is something about a computer keyboard that can turn each into a shrinking violet.
There are two basic reasons for this initial passivity
1. The perception that despite their power, computers are extremely fragile devices.
2. The feeling that computers are on a somewhat different plane than other types of tools, the "gift of the God" syndrome.
Let's take a closer look at each of these observations. The first is a result of the day-to-day contacts that most people have with computers and the limited knowledge they possess about them. From the average person’s vantage point, computers are like newborn infants that need special handling and protection. Most people never see the large mainframe systems where they work. These computers are typically locked away behind security doors, in guarded environments with their own air conditioning, heating, electrical, and humidity control systems. From the outside looking in, it would appear that computers require a lot of care and attention. This particular point of view is often strengthened by day-today experiences that may often be punctuated by periods when the computer isn’t available. In the jargon of data processing, people are told of down time, system failure, or crashes, without any idea what those things might really relate to. Small wonder that when they suddenly come face to face with a personal computer some people are somewhat reluctant to touch it. After all, if the big ones come tumbling down from time to time, despite the care and attention of experts, what will happen when they start touching one? The second observation is that some people view computers in a somewhat different light than they do other office tools, maybe because of the sheltered environment that most people associate with the large systems. Computers operate in an almost mystical realm. Movies and popular works of fiction have pictured them as extending human powers beyond those of the body and mind. We think computers can solve complex problems almost in the blink of an eye. What could take a human hours, days, years, or even decades to work through might be processed in a matter of seconds or minutes by a computer. A mystique has grown up around not only the systems themselves, but also around the people who work with them. In a society that is growing increasingly dependent on technology, many who lack education or insight into computers look on those who can make them work in much the same way that ancient cultures viewed their high priests. As computers have become increasingly insulated, their operations cloaked in jargon and acronyms foreign to most people, many ascribe a certain reverence and awe to everything associated with them. Computers, and those who run them, have come to occupy a special niche beyond the province of the average person. With the arrival of the personal computer, all this is suddenly changing. Now individual workers are being given access to the same power and magic previously associated with the large systems. For some, this sharing of the technology can be likened to the Greek gods descending from the mountain top to share their secrets with their mortal followers. Against these backgrounds, it’s easy to understand why many men and women are apprehensive when it comes to touching a personal computer for the first time. As computers are extended through organizations, it is important for people to see them in the same light as they do other fixtures of the office, such as telephones and copiers. Some of this will certainly occur over time and with increased usage, and can be facilitated through introductory training programs that emphasize or demonstrate the difficulty actually damaging a system. The message that should come across is that while a lot of things. Can occur to the information they are working with, simply banging away on the keyboard won’t do much to actually harm the computer itself.

 

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HOW COMPUTER LITERATE DO PEOPLE NEED TO BE?

Not too long ago, a computer company ran a series of television commercials in which a personnel interviewer is reviewing a resume composed mainly of achievements in video arcades. After looking it over for a moment, the interviewer addresses the young applicant: “You destroyed one billion aliens from the planet Mongol. You know a lot about computer games. So tell me, what do you know about computers?” The applicant’s face goes blank.What do you know about computers?’‘ may well become business question of the future, and that has caused a lot of interest in the subject of computer literate," has become a kind of  battle cry among many business, government, and education leaders. This is easier said than done, since there is confusion as to exactly what the term computer literacy really means.It has become so overused that ii you were to ask 10 people what they thought it meant you would probably hear10 different answers. The simple fact is that this is no universally accepted understanding of what constitutes computer literacy.Some definitions of computer literacy include:

Spreadsheets—if you can do a spreadsheet you’re literate enough for us

Programming in at least one language, and possibly more being able to turn a system on and do something with it. Having enough knowledge to apply the technology to a job or to solving a problem. To know how to use whatever software you are given Simply being aware of the technology, and understanding how it might be of value to you Knowing the jargon and how it all fits together. According to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary, “literate” means “able to read and write.” Applying this to computers would mean being able to program. When schools talk about making our children computer literate, this is largely what they have in mind. A recent radio commercial also used the job interview format. The recruiter asked what languages the applicant knew. “French, Spanish, and a little German,” came the response. “What?” the recruiter exclaims, “No COBOL, Fortran, or BASIC?” The emphasis of that advertisement and others like it is that we had all better learn programming if we want to be literate and employable. Do we really want to become a nation of computer programmers, though? Judging from the diversity of opinion as to what constitutes computer literacy, and the limited range of jobs people are performing on personal computers, it will probably not be essential for most people to learn a programming language. This will probably become more evident as software programs become easier to learn and use. Still, many people harbor a fear of competition or obsolescence at the hands of a younger, more computer-literate generation. As they see commercials showing toddlers sitting on their parents’ laps while working on a personal computer, and computer curriculums becoming a part of the educational process from kindergarten through graduate school, many working people are starting to wonder how much they should be learning. How much someone needs to know, will probably depend on what kind of work they do, the availability of software to do it, and their own interest in learning about computers. For most people who have (or will gain) access to personal computers, however, that need will stop short of learning how to program. People also need to understand that they aren’t really competing with those who are still in school. Personal computers are just as new to education as they are to everyone else, and while students are getting a jump on things, many of them are years away from the workplace. Much of what students are learning won’t he readily transferable to their future jobs, either. Once employed, they will have to learn how to work the business applications and wait in line for a personal computer the same as everyone else. As companies invest more of their resources in personal computer technology, they will demand that programs be simplified to accommodate even the least educated of their workers. With the economic force of volume purchasing power behind them, companies will no doubt lead the way towards more user friendly programs. This in turn limits what people will have to learn, and ensures a steady stream of work for programmers.Perhaps the best thing that could be done would be to purge the term computer literacy and substitute a more realistic description that takes into account what people really need to know, such as the following stages of development:

 

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Word Guide on Computer

Compatible:

 The ability to run programs designed for one machine on those made by other manufacturers. In the consumer market, IBM has set the standard that others compare themselves to. People generally assume that if something is described as being compatible, it is. This is not 100 percent true, however, because any fundamental variation in the way a computer’s keyboard, monitor, disk drive, or memory responds to a computer program can destroy compatibility. Potential buyers should check things out before accepting the term at face value. One good test of computer equipment that bills itself as “IBM compatible” is to see if it will run the Lotus 1-2-3 software package.                                                                                              
Database:
A collection of related information that can be stored
and retrieved by a computer. Examples might be an inventory list, or a collection of names on a mailing list.
 Floppies:
 Also known as diskettes, or floppy disks. A plastic magnetic record used to store information. Standard diskettes are 8 inches in diameter; mini diskettes are 5 1/4 inches In diameter, and micro diskettes 3 1/2 inches. The term floppy comes from the thin and flexible nature of the disks’ construction.
Documentation:
Over the years, documentation has developed two equality important meanings: the explanatory comments a programmer uses to describe what a particular step in a program dot’s; and the instruction manuals that accompany a piece of hardware or software.
End User:
The ultimate recipient of computer services. Monochrome Display
Hard disk:
 A rigid disk used to store information. Hard disk can store far more information than floppy disks and can write and read information faster.
Hardware:
 The physical parts of a computer system as opposed to the program, or software.
Information Center:
A concept pioneered by IBM Canada and now fairly common in large corporations. An Information center helps end users develop their own applications. 
Kilobyte (K):
One thousand bytes of information (1024 to be exact). A byte can be thought of as one character, such as a letter (R), number (1), symbol (#), or simply a space.
Mainframe:
 The large computer systems run by governments, corporations arid so forth.
Monitor:
 Synonym for cathode ray tube (CRT). A visual display that lets the system communicate with the user.
Shop:
Term used by computer personnel to describe the place where they work (“I work in an IBM shop” or “We don’t FIGURE 1. Components making up a system arrangement. Courtesy of do it that way at this shop”). International Business Machines.
Software:
 Another name for programs. Spreadsheet: The computerized equivalent of an accountant’s worksheet, featuring a grid of columns and rows that enable the user to organize information in a standardized format.
System:
 All of the various component parts that make up a computer including the keyboard, printer, central processing unit, monitor, and any added attachments (i.e., an external storage device, a modem for communicating over telephone lines, etc.). More descriptive information on what makes up a computer system and how it all works can he found in Chapter Two.

 

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