SOME BASIC ESSENTIALS FOR COMPUTERS

              There is no better place to begin, than the beginning

This chapter is designed to accomplish two things:

1. Provide a basic understanding of how to work with a personal computer.

2. Serve .is guidelines for materials to include in personal computer training programs.

The information in this chapter assumes no prior knowledge of or experience with a personal computer. Anyone who has a comfortable working relationship with a personal computer may wish to skim over this section to get ideas of how to structure an introductory training course. For others starting from scratch, however, the chapter will focus on building a working knowledge of:

The keyboard

The operating system

Working with diskettes

Security and backups

GETTING STARTED

As noted earlier, the two most common types of personal computers that will be encountered in most organizations are machines containing two diskette drives, and those with one diskette drive and a hard disk.

Diskette drives refer to the number of slots on the microprocessor for inserting diskettes. Two-drive systems have one slot for the program diskette and one for working on and storing the results (see Figure 30).

Since hard disks offer the storage equivalent of 30 diskettes, they require only one diskette drive for entering information (see Figure 31), although they may be configured with two drives for more sophisticated applications. In either case, the loading process is the same. The diskette drive(s) has an opening through which diskettes are inserted into the computer. Each opening has a device similar to a door that can be opened and closed using what is called a lift load lever. Once a diskette is inserted, the door is closed behind it by pushing the load lever down. While the system reads your program, a small red light on the front of your disk drive will come on. Do not open the drive door while this light is on. Doing so may permanently damage the program, and under some circumstances the system unit itself.

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 31. Proper way of loading a diskette. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

To make things more comfortable, it is possible to make minor adjustments to the height of the keyboard and the brightness and contrast of the display monitor. If the display monitor is near a source of bright light, such as a window, or has a high degree of glare, an anti glare screen might be appropriate.

Depending on the model, most keyboards have two to three possible positions. These range from, flat to a five-degree to 15 degree angle. To adjust the height, pick up the keyboard and, make the  necessary adjustment using the knobs at each end.

Brightness and contrast can be adjusted using the control knobs generally found on the front of the monitor. On systems that share multiple users, this will probably have to be done every time a person sits down to work. Everything a computer does is governed by operating sys tern, which is a software program that manages many of the computer’s basic functions. It acts as an intermediary between hardware and software and performs such tasks as controlling the input output devices, assigning spaces in memory to programs and data, and controlling how the system processes information. -

For IBM and IBM-compatible machines the operating system is called DOS (Disk Operating System), MS-DOS, or PC-DOS. They all perform the same basic functions.

The operating system must be present whenever a system is on in order for anything to be accomplished. In addition, it must be copied to all software before that software can be installed or used. Most software is generic in nature and written to be run on more than one brand of machine. Copying the operating system onto a software program allows it to become compatible with a particular system. Instructions accompany most software programs.

Booting is the process of actually loading DOS into a system. Booting clears the memory, loads the operating system, and gets the computer ready to process its work. If this is done when a machine is first turned on, it is called a cold boot. If the operating system is loaded after a system is already up and running, it is called a warm boot.

To perform a cold boot, simply put a copy of DOS or its equivalent in Drive A, and turn the computer on. The on—off switch that controls the system unit or microprocessor is located at the rear of the unit. On IBM machines, the switch will always be on the right-hand side (see Figure 32).

This is the recommended way to activate an entire system:

First, turn on the printer

Second, turn on the monitor

Third, turn on the CPU

Follow this sequence because one of the first things a system unit does is to check what is connected to it, and whether or not they are working properly. Turning the system on as described

 

 

FIGURE 32. Locations of on/off switch on IBM system unit. Courtesy of International Business Machines.

is the most effective way to accomplish this. If a unit is connected to multisocket electrical power strip or surge suppressors check to see that it is turned on as well. Many people control the power to all their system components through such devices, using them to turn everything on simultaneously.

When the power is switched on, the first sound heard will be the motor humming as the computer checks to see how much memory it has  take from 3 to 90 seconds, depending on how much memory has been installed. Memory will be counted in units   which can be seen blinking by at the top left—hand corner of a monitor.

When the memory check is completed, the computer will emit a short beep, and then display the following message:

Current date is 01-01-1980

Enter new date:

At this point, a person may simply hit the “enter” key, or may provide the current date. If he or she is working with file materials, or materials that may require future reference, a date should be entered. To enter a date, the computer must be given the month, 1-12, day, 1-31, and year, 80-99. A correct entry might be: 10-14-1986.

The operating system will then ask for the time. Again, the choice is to simply hit “enter,” or supply the current time. Since a 24-hour clock is used, any time past noon should carry one of the following values:

1:00 = 1300 hr

2:00 = 1400 hr

7:00 = 1900 hr

8:00 = 2000 hr

3:00 = 1500 hr 9:00 = 2100 hr

4:00 1600 hr

5:00 1700 hr

6:00 = 1800 hr

10:00 = 2200 hr

11:00 = 2300 hr

12:00 = 2400 hr

The time is expressed in hours: minutes: seconds: and hundredths. Colons (:) must be used between• hours, minutes, and seconds. Any value that is omitted will be assumed to be a zero. For example, if it is 2:30 in the afternoon, you would enter 14:30 hrs. And the system would record 14:30:00.

To perform a warm boot, the system must be restarted by using the “Cntrl,”“Alt,” and “Del” keys simultaneously. The operating system disk should be in drive A, unless the system has a hard disk on which it has already been installed. As in a cold boot, the operating system will again ask to have the date and time entered.

 

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WORD GUIDE TO CHAPTER THREE

Bootstrap:

 A program that starts a computer.   

Cursor:

A patch of light or other visual indicator that shows where a person is working in a body of text.

DOS:

Disk Operating System. This is IBM’s version of the operating system1 which controls many of the functions of the computer.

Directory:

Tables of contents that lists programs and files that are stored sequentially on a diskette or hard disk. In short, a directory that describes the layout of records within a file.

Operating System:

A program or collection of programs that manages the hardware, output devices, logic operations and a number of other management functions. it provides a link between software and the computer’s internal language.

Security:

 The protection of information against disclosure, transfer, modifications, or destruction.

Write Protect:

 The process of protecting information stored on a diskette by sealing off the read/write notch with a tab or special tape. Some diskettes, such as those containing the operating systems, are  permanently sealed to prevent writing over their contents.

 

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Comparison of Computers Then and Now

 

Figure 8. Comparison of computers then and now. Courtesy of International Business Machines

This process has spanned three generations of growth:

The First Generation: The 1950s. Marked by the arrival of the UNI VAC, first-generation machines are identified by their use of electronic tubes. They were generally capable of executing about 1000 instructions per second and could store no more than 20,000 characters of information. It was during this time that Admiral Grace Hopper, a pioneer of the modern computer age, began what is generally considered the first career as a computer programmer. Hopper also pioneered the development of COBOL; perhaps the most common of all computer languages. The Second Generation: 1960 to 1965. First-generation computers were considered obsolete by 1960, as transistors replaced tubes. The second-generation computers were considerably smaller than their predecessors and handled in the range of one million instructions per second. The solid state technology ad these systems increased their storage capabilities and reliability, making them more attractive to business and industry. Computer concepts, such as operating systems, time sharing, and data communications, were -refined and gained a greater use. The Third Generation: 1965 to the Present. Advances in integrated and printed circuits have spawned the current generation of computers, which are smaller, faster, have more storage capacity, and are more affordable than ever before. There are, of course, many different types of computers available for modern use.

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THE HUMAN FACTORS (COMPUTER)

As we saw in the section on fear of computers, technology can have a profound effect on people. Fear, however, is not the only element that should be considered. People can also be affected by:
The physical demands placed on them by the technology.
The way that personal computers can impact job performance.
As more people spend increasing amounts of their day in front of video display terminals (VDT), more concern is being expressed for their physical well-being. This has increased interest in ergonomics, the study of the relationship between the human body and the machines we use.
One reason for the heightened interest is the growing concern over issues of health, comfort, and stress associated with the growing use of personal computers. Studies by several groups have concluded that there are a number of comfort issues related to the use of personal computers and computer terminals. Among the most cited problems is poor lighting and inadequate furniture that was often designed before anyone ever heard of office automation. According to a 1984 study released by the Administrative. Management Society Foundation, the most commonly reported problems associated with VDTs include pain in the shoulders, neck, buck, arms, and hands. Visual problems include burning eyes, headaches, focusing problems, and stress. These are brought about in part by poor lighting, problems of brightness contrast I twin characters and background, and flickering. Stress is also a factor that needs to be considered. Research landings indicate that some users show anxiety, depression, irritability, anger, confusion, and fatigue when working with terminals Jobs content can also play a factor. According to the Administrative Management Society study, clerical users complain more about discomfort than professional users. This seems to be a result of how personal computers fit into various jobs. For professional workers, they are often problem-solving tools, while data entry left to the clerks. In short, professional workers often use computers to perform tasks that result in something they can take pride in. Clerks, on the other hand, end up doing the simple repetitive jobs in which the end results are not as visible or meaningful. These are all issue that need to be conveyed to managers and owners, Training program can certainly help make the various levels of an organization aware  of the complexities of office automation tools, such as the personal computer, an can help educate people on the human needs in working with such a technology.

 

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OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF PERSONAL COMPUTERS BY MANAGERS AND EXECUTIVES

Many managers and executives who are working with personal computers are doing more of the work they used to delegate to their subordinates or secretaries. Higher ranking managers and executives are doing their own word processing, creating and maintaining mailing lists, assembling organization charts, developing budgets for their operating areas, and working on any Computing number of similar types of application programs and databases. Access to personal computers can actually create more work at higher levels in some organizations, among a group of people who traditionally complain about the constraints they feel on the use of their time. There doesn’t seem to be much doubt that personal computers can be powerful tools to help someone better manages their resources. It seems equally true; however, that they can also take over a person’s schedule and rob them of time. For example, the manager or executive who used to draft memorandums or letters in longhand, or by dictation, and then let a secretary set them up, now does all this work on a personal computer. Some say that it saves time, because they can redo or rearrange written information much more efficiently. Caught up in the magic of word processing, however, a few of these people are spending more time than ever setting up the perfect memorandum. One manager has admitted spending over an hour setting up a memorandum on his personal computer, which previously would have only taken 15 or 20 minutes to write and proof. Or, take the manager who spent several hours each day creating and updating her status files, and formatting (or reformatting) various types of reports, sometimes just to see how differently they could look. It didn’t take long for her staff to begin grumbling about her inaccessibility, and wondering what was going on behind her closed door. Then there was the executive who became so smitten by the possibilities of what a personal computer might do that she began ordering and working on new software packages at the rate of one every two or three weeks, to judge “its usefulness for my staff.” This was at a time when hers was the only personal computer in any of her work areas. In many cases, learning also takes place behind a closed door, as the manager or executive tries to learn how to use the technology on his or her own. This can be a frustratingly slow hunt and peck process for those who never learned to type, and who don’t want to be seen as not knowing something as rudimentary as a keyboard. Many of these people are investing large blocks of time working on teaching themselves or trying to develop program, time taken away from the management process.There are those who would argue that this isn’t necessarily hail, because managers need to know how to work personal computers in order to understand how they can be used to get work Personal computers in order to understand how they can be used to get work done. While that is certainly true, there are other ways to accomplish this without the managers investing their own time in actually performing the work itself. This is where training and management education can play an important role. The key question that needs to be addressed for management ranks and above is whether they should be trained on personal computers, or educated as to how they can be used. Managers and executives should be treated as a separate group. Any personal computers curriculum developed for business, industry, or 1oviinnwnt should include a seminar that addresses the issues III 1ersonal computers from the manager’s point of view, and that gives manages  the facts they need to make informed choices.
There are five primary areas of concern that any such seminar should  address:
1. What are the uses of a personal computer?
2. What does management  really need to know about computers
3. How do managers learn what they need to know?
4. How does the use of a personal computer fit into an individual's management or operating style?
5. What are the organizational issues and human ramifications of placing personal computers in the manager's work areas?
Personal computers have the potential for handling a great variety of tasks quickly and efficiently. They are emerging as a new force in (lie workplace, and their arrival foreshadows changes in the way information is shared, decisions are made, business l conducted, politics are played, and organizations are managed. Vet, they also need to be kept in their proper perspective. For this group of individuals, that means that personal computers should be viewed as extensions of the management process that need the same careful time and attention as any other resource under their control.

 

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Lack of knowledge

One big contributor to computer phobia is the fear of not knowing enough about computers. Many people are simply overwhelmed the first time they sit down at a system by the thought that they .ire going to have to learn everything about it.
As noted previously, one explanation for this may be found in the various. Opinions people have of what constitutes computer literacy and the levels of knowledge that might be necessary. Another is the widespread belief that to be truly effective requires either a technical education (such as math or engineering), or an ability to program. Colleges and universities that offer continuing education courses in programming and other computer-related skills are seeing increased enrollments as many workers return to the classroom to acquire such backgrounds. Part of what makes people uncomfortable with their level of knowledge is the huge amounts of reference material associated with most hardware and software. Manuals that run 300 to 500 pages tend to be more the rule than the exception, and can be very intimidating to those just beginning. A typical personal computer found in many businesses will probably be accompanied by:
1 Guide to Operations
1 Manual detailing the Disk Operating System
1 Guide to BASIC programming
1 Manual for each of the software packages running on that particular system
For a system supporting only one software package, this already totals four thick sets of reference manuals, and more will be added each time someone wants to do something new. Place all this material next to the machine and you will gain a quick understanding of why people feel uneasy. Most people don’t need to become programmers, nor do they need to understand the majority of what is contained in the reference manuals. For example, the manual that details the disk operating system contains information on how to use well over 80 different commands. An average user will probably never need more than four or five. Those returning to school to learn a programming language, solely because they believe it necessary to use a personal computer, will be disappointed to discover that they will probably never really need those skills. Hundreds of software packages already exist to do just about every kind of task imaginable, and many were designed to be used by people with absolutely no background in programming or computers in general. This isn’t to say that all this education is in vain, or that you can throw away the reference manuals. Computers, after all, do function in a highly logical manner, which they impose on those who use them. Knowledge of programming logic is certainly useful in understanding how computers process information, and the reference manuals can get users through just about any situation, once they know where to look. Unfortunately, a great many people find themselves with a with a system on their desk, five or six manuals stacked next to it, and no idea of where to begin to make sense of it. Left on their own, many quickly develop a sense of inadequacy that can sometimes border on panic. Training can very definitely make inroads on this particular brand of computer phobia by breaking the education process down into manageable units of information. For example:
Material from reference manuals can be extracted and condensed into brief summaries containing the most important facts or most frequently used options.
So-called cheat sheets, which provide a quick guide to functions and commands, can be put together for each software package.
Troubleshooting guides can be prepared to explain what to do when an error message is encountered, and who to contact if a problem can’t be resolved.
A one- or two-page overview describing what the primary reference manuals contain, and where to look for particular information, should accompany each system. Rather than teach entire software packages, some thought might be given to tailoring them to specific audiences. For example instead of teaching “How to use Lotus 1-2-3,” it might prove more valuable to offer a program on “Using Lotus 1-2-3 for Sales Analysis.”Provide a list of recommended readings, or copies of informative or helpful how-to articles.
There’s no getting around the fact that people are going to have to learn new things and develop new ways of thinking through problems as they begin using personal computers. How they go about that process, however, will often determine whether a personal computer ends up as a tool for productivity or an instrument that produces fear and frustration.

 

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PEOPLE’S EXPECTATIONS ON COMPUTER KNOWLEDGE

We are a society of images. Our standards and expectations are often shaped by the way we visualize things. Our primary sources for the way we see our world (or at least would like to see it) are found in commercial advertising. For good or bad, much of what many people know about personal computers is based entirely on what they see in 60-second television spots or in the product displays found in newspapers or magazines. Advertising is designed to catch one’s attention and spark the public’s imagination. Manufacturers want people to know that personal computers are more than toys, so they tend to picture them doing some fairly sophisticated things. More than that, they tend to show them as the tools of successful people. It wasn’t always that way, of course. Many people had their first taste of the technology through home systems that did little more than play Pong or other arcade games. Those early systems were quick to evolve, however, into more powerful tools and the advertising shifted away from entertainment towards business. This became increasingly true as more personal computer corn- panics entered the marketplace and competition quickly turned into battles for survival. A company’s success required the type of volume i1hS that can only come from business, industry, and government .As advertising changed to reflect the needs of these constituencies, it also began to 1itled the expectations people had about personal computers and what they can do. What advertising how k end results. The commercials picture young executives sitting down at their desks, turning on and getting instant information. Advertisements picture screens with full-color graphs and charts, or leave the impression that the heroes of today’s offices are the ones who can produce instant analysis. The tramp skates through to success simply by putting a personal computer on his desk.What the advertising doesn’t show is all the time and effort it can take to get a personal computer to do everything shown. Audiences are often left with the impression that personal computers are not only easy to figure out, but that they will arrive ready to do whatever is asked of them. Many companies expect the same things, and it isn’t unusual to find organizations where little time has been planned or allocated for getting people started on working with the technology. As people saw personal computers being placed with managers and executives first, another expectation developed. Success is equated with having a personal computer, or at least having access to one. Computers aren’t thought of as tools to improve productivity, but rather as vehicles to enhance careers. This carries the status symbol quality one step further. Some workers, perhaps fearful of future obsolescence, are also developing the expectation that they have a right to be trained on the technology whether or not they are currently using it. Part of this fear is being fueled by advertising and educational programs that emphasize personal computer training for children as young as toddlers. These two groups represent the opposite ends of the spectrum when it comes to offering training programs. On one hand, those looking for career mobility will want access to new programs that may enhance their own marketability. They will press for training in the latest or most innovative software, and will be the first to ask for demonstrations. They stay current by reading various trade publications, watching advertisements for the latest product announcements, and by listening to any number of office or personal computer user grapevines. Spurred on by their various sources of information, they often ask for training or access to so-called vaporware products, which have been publicly announced or given a product evaluation or review by a publication, but which are not yet available for sale.It is from this group that the user expert, or cocky novice (someone who knows just enough to be dangerous), will come. As a group they will tend to see personal computers as a means to a particular end, and will strike out more on their own to explore various packages and programs. Often they will be looking more for the “flash” effect a program may provide than for its added productivity value. The second group tends to view personal computers as an inevitable fact of life. They will need more basic information and will he less likely to go off exploring on their own. Many will be from the ranks of older workers and some will harbor a genuine fear of computers. They will learn what they feel they need to know in order to keep up with younger employees, and will press for training that is more related to the job they are currently performing. It is this group that will view personal computer training as something they have an inherent right to learn, and will often plead to be allowed into introductory classes.Whichever the group, there will be ample sources of motivation for wanting to learn about personal computers, as well as a wide divergence of expectations about how quickly that can be accomplished, and what that will mean back on the job.

 

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WHO OWNS THE TECHNOLOGY?

As noted earlier, data processing has a large vested interest in personal computer technology. The arrival of these machines means that computers themselves no longer belong exclusively to the data processing fraternity. Where the control of computing power was once centralized and managed within specific boundaries, it is now available to just about anybody.

It is not unusual to find large companies purchasing hundreds, if not thousands, of personal computers. This places computing power in the hands ol each person who has access to one. This not only extends the power of one system, as when people are given terminals that provide limited access to the central computer, but provides the potential for hundreds and thousands separate systems. Many of these systems may have the capacity to communicate with each other directly, or by networking through small computer systems established within departments, or through direct access to the mainframe computer. The arrival of all these systems also means that data processing has lost the battle to keep them out of most organizations. Having failed in that mission, however, doesn’t necessarily mean that data processing departments are ready to throw in the towel and make personal computers an integral part of ongoing operations. As we have already seen, personal computers pose some very real problems that many data processing departments aren’t prepared to address. Add to that the fear of losing a power base, and you have .what amounts to a minimum commitment in more than just a few organizations. In 1985, for example, studies of data processing budgets conducted by the Data Processing Management Association showed that while. 40 percent of expenditures went for salaries, 24 percent for large systems hardware, and 14 percent for software; less than 5 percent was expended for training and for Support of personal computers. Data processing managers projected that these figures would hold at about the same rate for personal computer expenditures through the balance of the decade. * Caught up in the crunch of developing and supporting programs that run on the large systems, data processing management seems to have relegated personal computers to second—class status. Issues of territoriality, however, keep many data processing managers from relinquishing total control of personal computers to other organizational areas. Often, training and support are assigned to an information or office systems’ center responsible for “end user computing.”

Not all organizations have such centers, however, nor does data processing always play as active a role in the personal computer process. In some organizations, there may be a void when it comes to making decisions about personal computers and their ultimate care and feeding,

For example, it’s not unusual to find organizations in which the only criteria for buying a personal computer system are a department head’s signature or the approval of the purchasing department. In organizations like this, there may be a multitude of different operating systems and software, none of which may be compatible. An engineering company that conducted an internal audit of its personal computer systems discovered that it had 51 systems representing 11 different manufacturers. Of these 51 personal computers, only 11 shared the same operating system and could run the same programs.

Everyone is on their own in environments like this, and training and support is very much dependent on employees’ abilities to learn things for themselves or from a user expert. User experts are called on whenever there is a void to fill, whether or not an organization has formal programs in place.

User experts have taught themselves how to use a particular hardware or software package, and now serve as a type of internal consultant, providing their own brand of training and advice. In some cases these people have developed the expertise necessary to be a real value. More likely than not, however, they have learned just enough to be dangerous. In one company that has a formal support program, and that keeps records of the problems worked on, 48 percent of all service calls were traced back to the efforts of user experts trying to help someone out.

How personal computers are viewed can also play a role in deciding who controls them. In many organizations, personal computers are viewed primarily as report writing machines that make financial and administrative planning considerably easier. Since the range of activities they perform is rather narrow, responsibility for their placement and control is often vested with financial departments or executives. So, who really owns the technology? In the overall analysis, it probably belongs to the person who is really using it. Control of just who gets their hands on the technology and what they do with it will probably end up with data processing or one of its offshoots, such as management information. This will become increasingly true as people demand more access to 11w information contained on the large mainframe computers. Since personal computers lack the power to process complex applications, it’s only a matter of time before people begin asking to have their work done on the large systems and the results downloaded to their personal computers.

The arrival of the personal computer marks a dramatic shift in how data processing will have to deal with the rest of an organization. In the past, access to the system was mainly in the hands of clerical staff, which sat for hours at terminal keyboards processing information into the system, or requesting certain types of information back. As more management and professional workers explore the power of the personal computer, they in turn are demanding more access to .other forms of financial or strategic information that goes right to the heart of an organization’s database. In the interest of security, most data processing departments will find themselves very involved with these new users, and will have to develop new strategies for dealing with them. In all likelihood these strategies will require a closer involvement and working relationship with human resources professionals.

 

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