SUMMARY OF COMPUTERS

While computers trace their lineage back several hundred years, most of the advances that led to modern computers have taken place since the late 1940s.

Most people think of computers as large cabinets with spinning tapes and blinking lights, which are locked behind security doors. This describes mainframe units—the large machines that process high volumes of information for businesses and governments. Since the invention of the microchip (very small transistors), a new generation of computers has become available. Known as personal or microcomputers, these machines have taken the same computing power that once required an entire room, and placed it in units that can sit on top of a desk or in a person’s lap.

Whether large mainframe units or the small micros, all computers operate in basically the same fashion. Computers are composed of the following functional sections:

Input

Central processing unit

Memory

Output

Input consists of the data to be processed, and the software program that provides the instructions and commands necessary for the computer to perform a specific job. These programs may be written by the computer’s operator, using a programming language that translates human instructions into a machine language the computer understands. Software programs that perform just about any task imaginable can also be purchased off the shelf.

The CPU is where the computer performs its arithmetic and logic functions, and where the operation of all the hardware is controlled.

Memory is where information (data) and instructions are stored. These are transferred between memory and the CPU by means of electrical conduits called registers.

There are two kinds of memory:

1. ROM

2. RAM

Read Only Memory can be read only by the computer itself. The computer operator has no control over it. It is the computer’s own software program, imprinted at the factory, to tell the computer how to work its own system.

Random Access Memory is under the operator’s control and is used to store information and instructions. The amount of RAM available (i.e., 64K, 256K, 640K), signifies the amount of filing-. cabinet space the computer has built into it, in which data can be filed, retrieved, and manipulated on a random basis. When the computer finishes processing the information it has been given, it returns it in the form of output. Output is made available through a printer, the video display unit, or by communicating it to another computer system. How does it all come together? The process starts by identifying a job that the computer can perform. A program is then chosen or created that will accomplish the tasks desired. The program will be written in a language the computer can understand, and that it converts to binary codes to actually carry out its assignment. All of this is governed by an operating system that tells the computer how to best perform the job, manages the filing system for storing the information, and operates the hardware needed to produce the work.

 

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Software

As noted earlier, there are software products for just about anything and everything imaginable. From games to programs designed to enhance professional development or monitor diet and nutrition, the list of possibilities seems almost limitless. Business software falls into the following categories:

Database management

Decision support

Word processing

Communications

Specialized use programs

Integrated software programs

DATABASE MANAGEMENT

Database management software allows for recording, modifying, and retrieving information without writing customized programs. Most database programs are designed to help users decide what type of information they want to record. They provide the means to enter, manipulate, and integrate the information to produce summaries, reports, or specific displays of items of interest. Most are set up to handle spur-of-the-moment inquiries, and allow records to be sorted and selected according to specific criteria. Examples of database software include PFS: File and Report and dbase III.

DECISION SUPPORT

The basic function of all decision support software, also known as financial modeling software, is to provide:

A quick and easy way to create mathematical models

Ways to enter information into the models

Reports of the results

These products can be broken down into three major categories: spreadsheets (VisiCa lc), financial modeling (IFPS), and integrated systems, which contain a database and graphing system (Lotus 1-2-3). All these products are designed to operate like an electronic multicolumnar accounting worksheet, except these worksheets have variable column widths with built-in math and financial models. Decision support software can be used to J)r1 pare budgets, analyze sales figures, calculate cash flow, or tiny other application where the information can be presented in a row or column.

WORD PROCESSING

Word processing packages allow for the creation, editing, and printing of documents, including correspondence and reports, form letters, legal papers, mailing labels, bills, and even book- length manuscripts. This book, for example, was written on a personal computer using one of the more popular word processing programs. The combination of word processing and personal computers offers more sophistication than can be found on a memory typewriter, and costs a fraction of the amount of a dedicated word processing system. The most fundamental component of any word processing package is its text editor. These editors are designed to edit a screenplay of text at a time, rather than line by line. They allow the user to scroll backward and forward through the text, rearrange it, copy it, delete words and phrases, add to an existing document, and, on some, check for spelling. Among the more popular programs are MultiMate, Word Star and the Volkswriter series.

COMMUNICATIONS

Personal computers that are linked together directly, or tied into host system, require the use of protocol software designed to allow two machines to talk with each other. A protocol is a standard that has been agreed to by hardware and software manufacturers so that different devices can transfer data between them. Without such a standard, two machines could not send or receive information at the same time or perform either function out of synchronization. A protocol provides a way for one machine to recognize that a line is tied up to the host, and that it must wait its turn. Protocols also provide the various sets of rules for controlling the transmission of information over any communications channel or cable.

Among the many functions protocol software programs perform are:

Establish and terminate the connection between two systems Maintain the integrity of the transmission through error detection procedures and requests for retransmissions Identify the sending and receiving machines handle a variety of special control functions, such as status checks, to make sure everything is working properly. Some software programs also provide a means to scramble and unscramble data communicated over telephone lines in order to protect the security of the information.

Among the more popular of these products are PC-Talk, Smart com II, and Crosstalk.

SPECIALIZED USE PROGRAMS

Specialized use packages fall into several groups:

Programs that support other software packages or enhance their use

Software that provides a specialized service, sometimes run- fling concurrently with another program

Graphics programs

Among the various packages available for specialized use are those that:

Run desktop organizers, which feature calculator, message board, telephone dialing, and appointment calendar functions that appear as windows similar to those shown in Figure 28, that overlay whatever software you may be working on. Print spreadsheet applications sideways so that they fit into reports more naturally. Increase the computer’s processing speed. Enhance keyboard operations by memorizing keystroke sequences and consolidating commands. With a program such as this, commands that normally take six or seven keystrokes can be reduced to one.

FIGURE 28. Monitor showing window display.

Produce presentation quality charts and graphs as shown in Figure 29.

Prepare line drawings, schematics, blueprints, and high resolution reproductions. The list of these specialized programs could go on. Most are available at a reasonable cost, usually for under $100, and many are offered free of charge through local personal computer user groups, or electronic bulletin boards.

 

INTEGRATED SOFTWARE

Integrated software programs offer several major functions in one package. Some of these offerings, for example, combine word processing, database management, and spreadsheets along with some form of communications. This is a one-stop-shopping approach, where you get everything in one place at one price. These are large programs that require substantial memory requirements on the order of 640K. Since they offer so much, they also have to scrimp in places to get everything in. This generally means that they can’t offer all the sophisticated features available in those programs that specialize in just doing word processing or spreadsheets. Two examples of integrated software are Symphony and Framework.

 

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A QUICK REVIEW ON COMPUTERS COMPONENTS

One very simple way of thinking about how computers work is to make a comparison between a personal computer’s components and corresponding human functions:

  PC Components                               Human Functions

)    CPU)                                                       Brain

   Memory                                           Ability to recall things

Software                                                  Intelligence

Input (i.e.: keyboard)                            Five senses

Output (i.e.: printer)                            Speech, writing

Unlike humans, computers need to be told exactly what to do before they will perform any task. Computers also work only with binary (numeric) information. In order to perform, a computer first converts all programs and data into this numeric form that it can understand. Once this is done, it will perform any task assigned it. All of these activities are accomplished by the operating system. Essentially, the operating system is a group of programs that have the responsibility of telling the computer what to do, and the most efficient way of doing it. The operating system for IBM personal computers and IBM compatible systems is the Disk Operating System (DOS), which performs a number of jobs that can be broken down into three main functions:

1. Handles and manages files

2. Oversees the use of operating hardware

3. Interprets and executes commands (see Figure 15)

Memory and storage

While humans think of memory in terms of words or amounts of information that can be remembered, computers think of memory in terms of bits, bytes, K, and megabytes. The smallest unit of memory is the bit. A bit is a binary digit of information. Eight hits equal one byte, which is considered the standard unit for computing information. While the bit is too small a unit of information to spend much time worrying about, a byte can be thought of as one character, such as a letter, number, symbol, or space. For example, the phrase: “Tom, come here” contains 17 characters (4 symbols, 11 letters, and 2 spaces). This means the phrase also has 17 bytes. The symbol K represents 1000 bytes (1024 to be precise). A megabyte (Meg) contains one million bytes. One way to think about this is to compare it to a standard page of typed text that contains around 3000 characters, or 3K of information. Using this analogy, one megabyte would be roughly equal to 333 pages.

FIGURE 15. The disk operating system is an indispensable part of a personal computer, governing everything from file management to the hardware.

Obviously, the more memory capacity a personal computer has, the more it can accomplish. A 5.25-inch double-sided diskette, for example, can provide over 320K of long-term memory (or about 107 pages of standard text). (See Figure 16.) Many personal computers have hard disk memories, designed to hold 10 megabytes (see Figure 17) (about 3333 pages of equivalent text) or more. Diskettes and hard disks (sometimes called Winchester disks) allow for the long-term storage of programs or data. Unlike the

FIGURE 16. A diskette can hold the equivalent of 107 pages of text.

Internal working memory, the information stored in these outside sources isn’t lost when a computer is shut off. Both sources also offer mass storage capabilities that the computer’s internal memory isn’t large enough to deal with. Other types of storage devices include cassette tapes (which are rarely found in business systems), cartridge tape systems, which can be plugged directly into the personal computer or be kept as a separate piece of equipment, external hard disks (sometimes called expansion units) connected to the system but physicality separate from it, mass storage devices designed to support several systems, and hard disks that can be plugged directly into .1 personal computer (Figure 18) and then removed to be stored elsewhere.

 

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HOW A COMPUTER OPERATES

What goes on inside a computer is a mystery to most people, and even a little frightening to some. Actually, it is a fairly simple process - Whether we are talking about a supercomputer or one that can sit on top of a desk, all function in the same general way.

To understand how computers operate, we first have to break them down into several basic elements:

1. Input

2. Central processing unit (CPU)

3. Memory or storage

4. Output

Information is put into the computer through any of several different sources:

1. Keyboard

2. Data diskette (which can contain the program of instructions

What Are The Components Of A Personal Computer

The hardware components (those things you can see and touch), for a personal computer include:

A microprocessor (or system unit)—This is the Central Processing Unit (CPU) for a personal computer. While it looks like a box, it contains the memory systems (RAM and ROM) and is really the heart of the system. This unit also contains the disk drives. Since the memory is wiped clean each time you turn the machine off, you need a more permanent storage system. This is provided by keeping separate memory diskettes.

• A keyboard that lets you communicate with the system.

• A video display monitor (like a TV screen) that lets the system communicate with you.

• A printer that can produce a paper copy of whatever you are working on.

Diskettes—The software containing the programs you wish to run or on which to plan your work. A diskette is a small magnetic record that contains the storage space for your memory. When a diskette is inserted into a disk drive, it is spun much like a record on a turntable, and “read” electronically. A single sided diskette can hold the same amount of information as 110 pages of single-spaced text.

You will be working with, or the information you will be working on)

1. Cassette tape

2. Graphic tablets and electronic pens

3. Light pens, which can be used by directly touching the screen of a monitor

One key point to remember is that a computer will do exactly as it is told, and only what it is told. This can lead to what programmers call GIGO or Garbage In, Garbage Out. If the user doesn’t give the computer the correct information to work with, and precise’ instructions on what to do with that information, he or she will get back incorrect or meaningless answers and results.

Data is entered into the CPU. The CPU is where all the logical and control functions of a computer are carried out. The CPU is actually divided into two areas: a control unit, and the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU). The control unit spends its time figuring out what the computer is supposed to do next, and the ALU actually does it.

Memory is where information and instructions are stored. How does a computer memorize? A series of on/off switches lead an electrical current to a particular location, or address. Information is moved between the CPU and its memory banks by electronic pathways or conduits, called registers.

 

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WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Thanks to Madison Avenue, Hollywood, and a horde of science fiction writers, some people have come to believe that computers have minds of their own and are capable of thinking for themselves. While there is some interest and developmental research in the field of artificial intelligence (the so-called fifth generation of computers, which would be able to learn from experience and improve their own performance on any given task), computers. We know them today are basically stupid.

This is an important point to remember, particularly when dealing with someone who has a fear of computers. Essentially, a computer can be thought of as a very fast, very large calculator that can manipulate or process a lot of information, under its own control. It will execute any command it is given with precision and speed, but won’t go beyond that point. In short, it will do exactly what it is told, and no more. It has no way of telling 4vliether the information it is working on is good or bad, unless it receives further instructions and is given some basis for comparison. The intelligence and control belong entirely to the person who is working with it. Turn it off and its memory can be wiped clean. It is important to think about computers as one of many tools (such as telephone, calculators, and electric typewriters and pencil sharpeners) that people have at their disposal to help make life a little easier. Like a calculator, a computer can add and subtract quickly and with a high degree of accuracy. When a person uses a calculator, however, a button has to be pushed for each function to be performed. A computer has the capacity to store a series of instructions that, in effect, tell it what buttons to push, and in what order to push them. Most of what computers can do is based on their ability to:

Add two numbers together

Subtract one number from another

Compare numbers or symbols to see if they are the same

The power computers possess comes from their ability to perform multiple functions simultaneously and process tremendous amounts of information in what amounts to the blink of an eye. They are at their best when used for large volume, highly defined tasks.

In order to function effectively; a computer requires:

An input device, so that information can be given to it Information (or data)

A program to tell it what to do, or how to work, with that data An output device so that it can display or print out whatever is requested of it

These computer concepts can be found at work in any number of things with which most of us have daily contact. For example:

Scanners such as that pictured in Figure 11, used in the checkout stands at the supermarket (including some that have voice synthesizers)

FIGURE 11. Computerized scanner at a grocery store. Photo by author.

Cash registers at fast-food and other restaurants that not only keep track of cash and sales but that also tie into inventory control and reordering. Automatic tellers programmed to transfer money from your account on demand, or perform other services (see Figure 12) Household appliances, such as microwave ovens and televisions. Automatic gasoline pumps (pictured in Figure 13), that record a purchase, turn on the pump and keep track of how many total gallons a station is using Automobile systems that calculate miles per gallon, trip times, and distance. Computers are able to do all these things because they make no distinction between numbers and symbols. Rather, they translate everything into electrical impulses, which form patterns that have meaning for the computer. These patterns form the basis of the computer’s numbering system by taking the electrical pulses and converting them to a binary system. Binary consists of exactly two numbers: 1 (a pulse of electricity) and 0 (no pulse). By stringing is and Os together, the computer converts whatever data it is given into terms it can understand. For example, the binary equivalent of the number 10 is 1010. Binary codes are also assigned to the characters on the keyboard, so that letters, symbols, and spaces are treated the same way numbers are. This is accomplished through an international conversion code called the American Standard Code for International Interchange (ASCU). Under this code for example, the letter “B” on a keyboard is given the numeric value 66, which the computer can convert to its binary equivalent of 01000010. When the computer is finished processing the information it is given, it translates everything back into numbers and symbols that we understand. For most of us, there is no reason to ever use binary in communicating with a computer because this is already on the software. The decoding instruction the computer needs to interpret everything is programmed into it by the manufacturer.

FIGURE 12. Computers help make breaking more convenient  through the automated tellers.

FIGURE 13. Computerized gas pumps calculate sales customer’s account. 

 

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Comparison of Computers Then and Now

 

Figure 8. Comparison of computers then and now. Courtesy of International Business Machines

This process has spanned three generations of growth:

The First Generation: The 1950s. Marked by the arrival of the UNI VAC, first-generation machines are identified by their use of electronic tubes. They were generally capable of executing about 1000 instructions per second and could store no more than 20,000 characters of information. It was during this time that Admiral Grace Hopper, a pioneer of the modern computer age, began what is generally considered the first career as a computer programmer. Hopper also pioneered the development of COBOL; perhaps the most common of all computer languages. The Second Generation: 1960 to 1965. First-generation computers were considered obsolete by 1960, as transistors replaced tubes. The second-generation computers were considerably smaller than their predecessors and handled in the range of one million instructions per second. The solid state technology ad these systems increased their storage capabilities and reliability, making them more attractive to business and industry. Computer concepts, such as operating systems, time sharing, and data communications, were -refined and gained a greater use. The Third Generation: 1965 to the Present. Advances in integrated and printed circuits have spawned the current generation of computers, which are smaller, faster, have more storage capacity, and are more affordable than ever before. There are, of course, many different types of computers available for modern use.

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WHO OWNS THE TECHNOLOGY?

As noted earlier, data processing has a large vested interest in personal computer technology. The arrival of these machines means that computers themselves no longer belong exclusively to the data processing fraternity. Where the control of computing power was once centralized and managed within specific boundaries, it is now available to just about anybody.

It is not unusual to find large companies purchasing hundreds, if not thousands, of personal computers. This places computing power in the hands ol each person who has access to one. This not only extends the power of one system, as when people are given terminals that provide limited access to the central computer, but provides the potential for hundreds and thousands separate systems. Many of these systems may have the capacity to communicate with each other directly, or by networking through small computer systems established within departments, or through direct access to the mainframe computer. The arrival of all these systems also means that data processing has lost the battle to keep them out of most organizations. Having failed in that mission, however, doesn’t necessarily mean that data processing departments are ready to throw in the towel and make personal computers an integral part of ongoing operations. As we have already seen, personal computers pose some very real problems that many data processing departments aren’t prepared to address. Add to that the fear of losing a power base, and you have .what amounts to a minimum commitment in more than just a few organizations. In 1985, for example, studies of data processing budgets conducted by the Data Processing Management Association showed that while. 40 percent of expenditures went for salaries, 24 percent for large systems hardware, and 14 percent for software; less than 5 percent was expended for training and for Support of personal computers. Data processing managers projected that these figures would hold at about the same rate for personal computer expenditures through the balance of the decade. * Caught up in the crunch of developing and supporting programs that run on the large systems, data processing management seems to have relegated personal computers to second—class status. Issues of territoriality, however, keep many data processing managers from relinquishing total control of personal computers to other organizational areas. Often, training and support are assigned to an information or office systems’ center responsible for “end user computing.”

Not all organizations have such centers, however, nor does data processing always play as active a role in the personal computer process. In some organizations, there may be a void when it comes to making decisions about personal computers and their ultimate care and feeding,

For example, it’s not unusual to find organizations in which the only criteria for buying a personal computer system are a department head’s signature or the approval of the purchasing department. In organizations like this, there may be a multitude of different operating systems and software, none of which may be compatible. An engineering company that conducted an internal audit of its personal computer systems discovered that it had 51 systems representing 11 different manufacturers. Of these 51 personal computers, only 11 shared the same operating system and could run the same programs.

Everyone is on their own in environments like this, and training and support is very much dependent on employees’ abilities to learn things for themselves or from a user expert. User experts are called on whenever there is a void to fill, whether or not an organization has formal programs in place.

User experts have taught themselves how to use a particular hardware or software package, and now serve as a type of internal consultant, providing their own brand of training and advice. In some cases these people have developed the expertise necessary to be a real value. More likely than not, however, they have learned just enough to be dangerous. In one company that has a formal support program, and that keeps records of the problems worked on, 48 percent of all service calls were traced back to the efforts of user experts trying to help someone out.

How personal computers are viewed can also play a role in deciding who controls them. In many organizations, personal computers are viewed primarily as report writing machines that make financial and administrative planning considerably easier. Since the range of activities they perform is rather narrow, responsibility for their placement and control is often vested with financial departments or executives. So, who really owns the technology? In the overall analysis, it probably belongs to the person who is really using it. Control of just who gets their hands on the technology and what they do with it will probably end up with data processing or one of its offshoots, such as management information. This will become increasingly true as people demand more access to 11w information contained on the large mainframe computers. Since personal computers lack the power to process complex applications, it’s only a matter of time before people begin asking to have their work done on the large systems and the results downloaded to their personal computers.

The arrival of the personal computer marks a dramatic shift in how data processing will have to deal with the rest of an organization. In the past, access to the system was mainly in the hands of clerical staff, which sat for hours at terminal keyboards processing information into the system, or requesting certain types of information back. As more management and professional workers explore the power of the personal computer, they in turn are demanding more access to .other forms of financial or strategic information that goes right to the heart of an organization’s database. In the interest of security, most data processing departments will find themselves very involved with these new users, and will have to develop new strategies for dealing with them. In all likelihood these strategies will require a closer involvement and working relationship with human resources professionals.

 

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